Funded PhD studentships in the School of Psychology

Artificial Intelligence, Human-centered ( Professor Andy Wills )

AI will revolutionise our lives within the next 20 years – be part of a project to maximise the benefits and minimise the risks! Your specific topic would be by negotiation, but would involve some aspect of the interaction between psychology / neuroscience and AI applications (e.g. ChatGPT, autonomous vehicles, household robots). The project would necessarily involve some aptitude in, or at least a willingness to learn, coding.

Autism & Anthropomorphism ( Dr Gray Atherton and Dr Liam Cross )

Traditionally, people with autism have been thought to show reduced theory of mind (ToM) and be poor perspective takers. As anthropomorphism (the process of applying human-like mental states to non-human agents) can be thought of as an extension of ToM, it was also theorised that individuals with autism show less anthropomorphism. More recently, these accounts have been called into question. A growing body of work shows that individuals with autism may show a particular penchant for anthropomorphism and demonstrate a sustained or even improved ability to take the perspective of human (cartoon, animal, robot) agents. We would be keen to hear from students who wish to pursue this area using mixed methods approaches (eye tracking, facial emotion recognition, interviews, surveys, biometrics), especially from those who have an interest in working with virtual or augmented reality paradigms.

Autism, spatial navigation in real and virtual built environments, and brain connectivity ( Dr Matt Roser , Dr Alejandro Veliz Reyes and Dr Alastair Smith )

Autism spectrum conditions have been associated with a constellation of strengths and weaknesses within the visuospatial domain. One component that has received relatively little scientific attention is the difficulty that many individuals can have with everyday spatial navigation. Some empirical reports have identified the potential cognitive bases of these individual differences, although they have generally been based on relatively simple screen-based virtual environments. In this project, we will use state-of-the-art Immersive Media technologies to comprehensively explore navigation in autism. The work will focus on the documentation of realistic models of the built environment, including models from actual buildings and spaces constructed using long-range 3D scanning technologies. These environments will not only be used to provide a realistic and valid platform to experimentally characterise the range of abilities that contribute to differences in daily navigation, but also to test more applied questions of whether learning in realistic immersive environments can transfer to the real world. This will carry important ramifications for supporting difficulty and improving quality of life for some individuals. The project will also make use of brand-new facilities in Plymouth’s flagship Brain Research and Imaging Centre to examine neural connectivity (include diffusion imaging and white-matter tractography) in relation to navigational performance.

Designed to distract? The effect of modern online behaviour on the efficacy of task switching ( Dr Sean Fallon )

Attention is now the most precious commodity in the 21^st Century. Many of the world’s most profitable companies are constantly trying to attract our attention. Accordingly, apps, emails and online content creators, often desire to hijack our attention in the most direct way possible (e.g. mobile phone notifications). Although there may be numerous benefits to this, there may also be negative consequences for our cognitive performance. Several rival hypotheses exist, however. It is possible that the need to constantly switch attention between different tasks acts as a form of “brain training” and improves several aspects of our cognitive performance. Alternatively, constant task switching may impair our cognitive performance, through increasing our susceptibility to distraction. This programme of work will seek to evaluate these two rival hypotheses.

Developmental trajectories of social comparison and competitive attitudes ( Dr Nadège Bault and Professor Elsa Fouragnan )

A rich research tradition in sociology, social psychology and economics has demonstrated how concern for status strongly motivates human behaviour. Happiness and well-being are strongly affected by the comparison between the individual’s own income and the income of others. Individuals in dominant position use their status to secure privileged access to resources, such as food and mates. Therefore, social comparison is important for monitoring one’s social status and might emerge early during development. Recent research in cognitive neuroscience suggests that counterfactual and social comparison rely on different brain mechanisms and that the latter induces competition. Emotional responses elicited by social comparison (envy and gloating) engage the reward system as well as social cognition areas more than their private counterparts (regret and relief). We propose to investigate the developmental trajectory of social comparison and competitive behaviour. You will use monetary tasks/games, combined with neuroimaging methods to link interindividual differences in cortical development with attitudes toward social comparison and cooperative/competitive behaviour. Some experience with, or at least strong willingness to learn, computer programming (e.g. matlab, R, Python) is essential for this project. The use of computational models of decision making will be possible (and supported) depending on the student’s interest. You will have access to the school lab and to the brand new state-of-the-art human neuroimaging facility (Brain Research & Imaging Centre) of the University.

Effective learning through testing: The testing effect in basic and applied research ( Dr Michael Verde )

A great deal of recent interest has focused on the role of testing in learning. Both basic and applied research suggests that revising information through active retrieval is one of the most effective ways to promote long term retention (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006; Roediger & Pyc, 2012). This research project has two goals. The first is to investigate the factors that make testing such an effective method of revision. We will consider theories of associative strengthening, information integration, and contextual reinstatement. The second goal is to apply our findings to ecologically valid materials and settings such as science education. This project has strong potential for interdisciplinary work with researchers in education and biology.

Enhancing creativity with placebo techniques inspired by magic ( Dr Gustav Kuhn )

In times of uncertainty, creative thinking plays a vital role in promoting economic growth, improving living standards, and enhancing overall well-being. While research shows that certain instructions and mindsets can temporarily boost creativity, these effects vary significantly between individuals and tasks. This project explores a unique placebo approach by combining techniques from magic with a sham neuroscientific device to enhance creativity and cognitive performance. We aim to understand the nature of this placebo effect, how it might enhance creativity. The device also allows us to examine if other cognitive functions – like attention and cognitive control – can be influenced by similar methods. This interdisciplinary project will involve a variety of research methodologies, including cognitive tests, eye tracking, and EEG. Prior experience in magic is not necessary, as experienced magicians will be available to support the project.

Exploring experimental ethics ( Dr Jan K. Woike )

Many of the decisions we make and the actions we take or fail to take impact others directly or indirectly. Whether intended or not, our actions may help or harm others and have the potential for shaping reactions and even complex chain reactions. How do we navigate complex social environments, how do we motivate and justify decisions with consequences for others? Experimental ethics in this project combines empirical methods from experimental economics and experimental philosophy to study decision making and interaction with moral implications. Possible topics include: consequences of cooperation and competition, distributive justice, honesty and cheating, promises and threats, social dilemmas, collective action, rivalry, negotiation and conflict escalation. Programming skills would be an asset, and the project would be ideal for students with an interest in (1) developing and analyzing interactive online games and experiments and (2) engaging with literature across different disciplines (psychology, philosophy, and economics).

Exploring magic's role in combating cyber-deception ( Dr Gustav Kuhn and Professor Kevin Jones )

Online fraud and deception present significant risks to society, especially in the realm of cybersecurity. This project investigates how principles of magic can inform new strategies for countering cyber-deception. Both magicians and hackers use social engineering to influence people’s actions, often leading individuals to reveal sensitive information or act against their own interests. Working with the Cyber-Ship Lab – a cutting-edge facility designed to test the security of modern ships – this project will examine how complex systems can be vulnerable to cyber-attacks. This lab provides an ideal setting to identify security gaps and develop defenses against cyber threats. Through this collaboration, we’ll explore questions like: What parallels exist between the art of magic and cyber deception? How can magic offer insights into cybersecurity, specifically regarding human susceptibility to manipulation? Why are people prone to deception, and how can magic make us more resilient to social engineering tactics? This interdisciplinary project will use a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both qualitative and quantitative research. It’s ideal for anyone interested in exploring intersections between magic, cybersecurity, and human behaviour. No prior experience in magic is required, as experienced magicians will be involved to support the research.

Exploring the “magic” of advanced technology in AI ( Dr Gustav Kuhn and Professor Jeremy Goslin )

Arthur C. Clarke once said, “Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.” This insight highlights how innovations like AI and robotics can feel miraculous because they often go beyond everyday understanding. Historically, magicians have challenged perceptions of the possible. For example, the “Mechanical Turk,” a chess-playing automaton created in the 1780s, seemed to play against human opponents unaided. The Mechanical Turk was an elaborate magical illusion that transfixed the world for nearly 80 years and pushed the boundaries of what people imagined could be possible. At the MAGIC Lab, we’re expanding on this idea by programming a state-of-the-art robot to perform mind-reading tricks, testing the limits of AI’s capabilities. This project examines how these magical experiences influence people’s beliefs and trust in AI. Using a mixed-methods approach (both qualitative and quantitative), this interdisciplinary research is open to anyone interested in exploring the intersection of magic, AI, and human perception. No prior experience in magic is needed, as experienced magicians will be on hand to support the work.

Forcing and the illusion of free will ( Dr Gustav Kuhn )

Humans make countless decisions daily and often take pride in being in control of these choices. However, our thoughts are easily influenced by external and internal factors, making us largely unaware of how effortlessly these thought processes can be shaped by others. This illusion of control is a crucial aspect of human cognition and has significant implications for everyday decision-making. Magicians have perfected techniques that exploit our cognitive biases and vulnerabilities in decision-making, particularly through “forcing” methods, which create the illusion of free choice. This project will investigate the psychological mechanisms that make such forces effective and the cognitive factors that leave us open to these subtle forms of influence. Research methodologies may include cognitive testing, eye tracking, and more. No prior experience in magic is necessary, as skilled magicians will be available to support the project.

Getting lost in a virtual world ( Dr Alastair Smith and Professor Christopher Mitchell )

Our health and wellbeing are dependent on our ability to set goals for ourselves, and to achieve those goals. For example, suppose you have secured a new job that is in a different part of town from where you have worked for the last five years. It is important that you are able to navigate your way efficiently to that new workplace on the first day. One way in which this might go wrong is that (anxious and distracted on your first day) you may accidentally drive to your old workplace. That is, a habit that has developed over five years might undermine your goal. We have recently developed a procedure to produce habitual behaviour of this kind in the laboratory. The current project is to extend the examination of these habitual “action slips” to the domain of navigation. Students will create virtual computer-based environments through which participants will be required to navigate to achieve certain goals. The research will examine when and why we are sometimes not in control of our behaviour, as a consequence of learned habits. The project will also relate navigational errors to the contents of the environment (e.g. landmarks, boundaries) in order to examine whether some environments or routes are more likely to engender habitual errors than others. This will have implications for the treatment of navigational impairments found in typical (e.g. ageing) and atypical (e.g. dementia, developmental conditions) populations.

Imagination and lying ( Dr Clare Walsh )

When we think about past events, we often reflect on how things might have happened differently, for example, if I had left home earlier, I might have caught the train. This mental simulation of alternatives to the past is known as counterfactual thinking. The aim of this project is to examine the idea that this process may also be an important part of how people generate lies. Like counterfactual thinking, lying involves making minimal changes to past events and these changes should be consistent with other events that have happened. Lying therefore also requires keeping in mind what the listener knows to be true. The project will examine the processes underlying the generation of lies and whether as a result, some lies are easier than others to generate.

Imagination, judgements and emotions ( Dr Clare Walsh )

When we reflect on past events, we frequently reflect on how things might have happened differently. We might imagine that things could have turned out better, for example, if I had been paying attention, I wouldn’t have tripped or instead that they could have turned out worse, e.g. I am lucky that I didn’t break my arm. These alternatives shape how we feel about events that have happened and the judgements that we make about them, for example, where we place responsibility or blame. They can also influence decisions about how to behave in the future. This project will therefore examine the types of thoughts that people imagine and their consequences.

Improving face recognition accuracy with a smile ( Dr Mila Mileva )

The human face is an extremely rich source of information – just by looking at someone’s face, we can extract information about their age, gender, mood and even their personality. More importantly, we use faces to recognise the people we know as well as to prove our own identity to unfamiliar observers (such as passport control officers at airports). Research has demonstrated that familiar and unfamiliar face recognition are fundamentally different processes – while we can recognise familiar identities somewhat automatically and with no effort whatsoever, unfamiliar face recognition is a surprisingly error-prone task. There have been many attempts to find ways to improve unfamiliar face recognition accuracy by providing feedback, targeted training or by using multiple images of the same person. While successful, to an extent, these approaches have important limitations. Previously, I have identified an easy and consistent route to recognition accuracy improvement – to simply smile. When we compare two smiling images, compared to two neutral images, we are more likely to accurately determine whether they belong to the same person or to two different people. This project aims to explore this smiling effect further by identifying the reasons why we find smiles so beneficial – this might be because when we smile, further idiosyncratic information is available, because a smile increases motivation to perform well or because we spend more time looking at smiling rather than neutral images. The project will also focus on the extent of the smiling advantage by increasing the difficulty of the task, introducing an age gap between the images or with other-race faces.

Learning object categories in biological and non-biological machines ( Professor Andy Wills )

Since around 2014, there have been substantial advances in Artificial Intelligence, with cutting-edge machines now able to classify objects with a level of accuracy that some engineers describe as 'human like'. How well founded are these claims of human-level performance on such tasks? And to what extent are these machines – whose designs are often inspired by neuroscience – good models of human behaviour? Some experience with, or at least strong willingness to learn, computer programming (e.g. R, Python, or C++) is essential for this project. Use of neuroscience methodologies (e.g. eye-tracking, EEG, fMRI) may be possible, depending on your interests.

Learning trust and connection ( Professor Christopher Mitchell )

This project takes a learning perspective to look at how we come to trust and connect with other people. Trust and connection are partly determined by our first impressions of others. However, there is also a role for learning; when we observe the behaviour of a person, our impression of them may change. In other words, we learn to associate people with the behaviours in which they engage. There are many phenomena that are well established in the associative learning realm. Some have been applied to the analysis of attitude and impression formation (see e.g., FeldmanHall & Dunsmoor, 2019). However, there is huge scope to develop this work further. The student will be free to determine the specific direction of the project. But I am particularly interested in three things: 1. The interaction between first impressions (based on the appearance of a face) and impressions learnt through experience of a person’s behaviour; 2. The malleability of impressions – the extent to which an impression of a person can change as a consequence of a change in their behaviour; 3. The use of AI in creating stimuli, such that the participant can form an impression of a ‘partner’ in a conversation (an AI chatbot) whose style of interaction can be manipulated by the experimenter.

Memory: Is forgetting an adaptive mechanism? ( Dr Michael Verde )

Theories of memory have traditionally viewed forgetting as a negative consequence of limitations of the memory system. Anderson’s (2003) retrieval inhibition theory proposes that, on the contrary, forgetting is adaptive and the ability to suppress certain memories is beneficial to the normal function of the memory system. This research will use a range of empirical paradigms and quantitative modelling techniques to investigate the factors that contribute to forgetting, including interference from other memories, conscious inhibition, and context change. Although the focus is on basic research, there is scope for investigating the implications of inhibition and forgetting in applied areas. For example, are emotional or traumatic memories more difficult or easy to suppress? Does suppressing irrelevant information facilitate problem-solving? In revising educational materials, does the strategic inhibition of knowledge actually, improve long-term learning?

Proxemics, and Interactions with Social Robots ( Dr Farid Pazhoohi and Professor Jeremy Goslin )

The comfort distance between humans and robots is a critical element in human-robot interactions. However, due to theoretical and methodological constraints, there is a lack of systematic research in this area. Although prior studies have examined the human-robot comfort distance using robots, they do not offer a comprehensive and systematic comparison between humans and robots as agents in an ecologically valid setting. This research examines human-robot interactions through virtual reality and investigates how the comfort distance from robots is affected by both robot appearance and individual differences. Additionally, electroencephalography (EEG) will be utilized to measure participants' neural responses during these interactions, providing insights into the cognitive and emotional processes underlying their comfort levels. This approach aims to bridge the gap in understanding the neural correlates of comfort distance in human-robot interactions, enhancing the ecological validity and depth of the research.

Sexual Orientation and Visual Attention to Social Stimuli ( Dr Farid Pazhoohi )

While there is a wealth of research on how physical attractiveness influences visual attention to social stimuli among heterosexual individuals, there has been relatively little investigation into how non-heterosexual individuals attend to such stimuli. Eye tracking is a widely recognized method for studying physical attractiveness in humans and it helps establish a behavioural link between evolutionary research on sexual selection and morphology. This project aims to investigate how sexual orientation affects visual attention to social stimuli, including faces and bodies.

Social predictions in autism and schizophrenia ( Dr Matthew Hudson )

Whilst autism and schizophrenia are easily distinguishable, they share remarkable similarities in the social difficulties that they encounter. However, it is not clear if the mechanisms that cause this are the same, or whether there are distinct causes that coincidently elicit the same difficulties. Recent predictive coding accounts of perception, whereby the brain generates predictions of what we will see to compare to what we actually observe, suggest that the predictions made by those with autism and schizophrenia may be different, and help us distinguish between them. Furthermore, making predictions about other people facilitates social interactions, and a different style of prediction may explain why people with autism and schizophrenia feel more comfortable interacting with others with the same condition. The aim of this project is therefore to employ predictive models of social perception to devise a behavioural test that is sensitive enough to easily distinguish between autism and schizophrenia, and to assess their social capacities in a more ecologically valid environment of real-world social situations that takes into account the people they are interacting with.

Social Perception of Tattoos ( Dr Farid Pazhoohi )

This PhD project aims to explore the social perception of individuals with tattoos using a multi-methodological approach, including behavioural assessments, eye-tracking technology, and virtual reality (VR). Behavioural studies will involve controlled social interaction experiments to observe and measure explicit attitudes and behaviours toward individuals with tattoos. Eye-tracking technology will be employed to capture and analyse participants' visual attention patterns and gaze fixation when viewing tattooed versus non-tattooed individuals, providing insights into implicit biases and attentional differences. Furthermore, VR environments will be utilized to create immersive and ecologically valid social scenarios, allowing participants to interact with virtual avatars with varying tattoo presentations in a controlled yet realistic setting. This research will also examine how individual differences, such as personality traits, prior exposure to tattoos, and cultural background, influence perceptions and interactions with tattooed individuals. By integrating these methodologies, the project aims to uncover how tattoos affect various aspects of social interactions, including trustworthiness, professionalism, and approachability, thereby contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the social dynamics and potential biases associated with body art.

So what if my mind’s eye is blind? Understanding motivation, judgment, and decision-making in aphantasia ( Dr Julie Ji )

The human capacity to mentally simulate future experiences using the imagination is supposed to be evolutionarily advantageous, because it helps us to predict what might happen, how we might feel about it, and how to approach/avoid good/bad outcomes. However, aphantasia, the inability to conjure mental images, challenges conventional understandings of the role of the imagination. Much is unknown about how the absence of mental imagery influences motivational processes, shapes judgmental tendencies, and modulates decision-making strategies. This project would suit a student who is interested in mental imagery and aphantasia.

Stand by me: Autism and proxemics ( Dr Gray Atherton , Dr Liam Cross , and Dr Farid Pazhoohi )

The concept of comfort distance in social interactions has been extensively studied in real-world contexts, but its implications in autistic individuals remain underexplored. This PhD project aims to investigate how autistic individuals manage interpersonal comfort distance in both physical and virtual interactions, focusing on their unique sensory and social processing differences. Autistic individuals often experience heightened sensitivity to sensory stimuli and face challenges in interpreting social cues, which may affect their ability to adjust interpersonal distances comfortably. By examining the preferred distances of autistic individuals during online interactions, using different modalities (2D and 3D in virtual environment) and comparing these preferences to their real-world interactions, the research aims to uncover patterns that could inform more inclusive communication strategies.

Studying climate change cognition using a game-based approach ( Dr Jan K. Woike and Dr Patricia Kanngiesser )

Climate change is an unprecedented global threat and understanding the dynamics involved in climate change is cognitively challenging. This project sets out to explore climate change cognition such as understanding exponential dynamics, social dilemmas, and their interplay using a game-based approach. It focuses on how people make decisions in a complex environment and which interventions can support mitigating actions. We have recently used a similar game-based approach to study decision making in a pandemic-like simulation (Woike et al., 2022). This project is ideal for someone who enjoys the conceptual and technical development of online games and has experience with statistical analyses.

Synchrony and pro-sociality ( Dr Gray Atherton and Dr Liam Cross )

A great deal of work has shown that moving in synchrony with people (such as when we dance, sing or even walk in coordinated ways with others) leads to a whole host of social consequences. These include an increase in cohesion, cooperation, and even conformity with those we move in time with. We would be interested in hearing from students who wish to pursue a PhD in this area using either lab-based or naturalistic methods, quantitative or qualitative. We would be particularly interested in projects using VR and the Elite Pro 2 VR treadmills.

Testing models of explicit and implicit memory ( Dr Christopher Berry )

Computational models are powerful tools for understanding human cognition, and their use has led to new, often counterintuitive, theoretical insights. Projects are available that combine computational modelling with behavioural experimentation to investigate the relation between explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) memory. Although the traditional view of explicit and implicit memory is that they are driven by distinct memory systems in the brain, numerous lines of research have converged on the view that memory systems may not divide so sharply on consciousness. Indeed, computational modelling approaches have shown that an alternative, single-system model explains numerous key findings thought to be indicative of distinct systems; it also makes predictions that can be verified empirically. This type of project would suit someone who has experience or interest in programming and has strong statistical/research methods skills. Applicants are advised to make contact to discuss the specific direction of the project before applying.

Theory protection in learning ( Dr Peter Jones )

When one event precedes another, we learn this relationship so that we can behave appropriately. A common assumption is that this learning is caused by prediction error, or the difference between our expectations and reality, with more prediction error resulting in more learning. However, recent data from experiments conducted in our lab cast doubt on this idea. In our experiments we changed the outcomes that followed certain cues. According to prediction error, learning should be greatest for cues whose outcomes changed the most. However, we observed the opposite result. Our results are more consistent with the idea of stubbornness, or ‘theory protection’, than with prediction error. We propose that, once participants learn what follows a cue, they are resistant to changing their beliefs. They therefore attribute unexpected outcomes to the cues that are most consistent with those outcomes, even though these will often be the cues that have the smallest prediction error. This project will examine this theory protection principle, to discover the circumstances in which it applies. This work is expected to have implications for a wide range of fields that use prediction error to explain how we understand the world.

Understanding human foraging behaviour ( Dr Alastair Smith )

Foraging is a fundamental behaviour for many species. In humans, it has even been typified as the context of our cognitive evolution, and many societies today still subsist on hunting and gathering. However, foraging behaviour is present in all societies, from searching a supermarket shelf to scouring your home for a lost set of keys. This activity is supported by a variety of psychological functions that include, perception, attention, memory, and decision making. Traditionally, psychologists have studied human search behaviour using the visual search paradigm, although this tends to constrain our understanding to simple two-dimensional spaces presented on a monitor. Advances in methodology now present exciting opportunities to create controlled three-dimensional search spaces for participants to explore, and this project will examine the psychological factors that support efficient environmental search behaviour. This can include explorations of environmental structure (e.g. shape, landmarks), statistical properties of the array (e.g. fruiting patterns, spatial likelihoods), and the individual differences that underlie search (e.g. working memory, autistic traits). Experiments could make use of Plymouth’s world-class environmental simulation capabilities, and there may also be the opportunity to address some of these issues in patients who have sustained neurological damage, and to look at changes in search behaviour associated with typical ageing.

Understanding human heterogeneity in learning, memory, and decision-making ( Professor Andy Wills )

In psychology, we typically assume that the average behaviour of a group of people is representative of a common set of underlying cognitive processes. In reality, we’ve known for some time that the group average can be unrepresentative of the vast majority of individuals that make it up. In a recent experiment, Lenard Dome (one of my current Ph.D. students) found only 3% of participants showed the group-level result! How can we build better theories of human learning, memory, and decision-making that capture the variety of behaviours exhibited within a group (and only the range observed)? Such would be the topic of your PhD. Some experience with, or at least strong willingness to learn, computer programming (e.g. R, Python, or C++) is essential for this project. Use of neuroscience methodologies (e.g. eye-tracking, EEG, fMRI) may be possible, depending on your interests.

Variability in perceptual learning ( Dr Zahra Hussain )

Practice improves perception, even for basic visual tasks such as discriminating the tilt of a line (is it clockwise or counterclockwise?). Such improvements, termed perceptual learning, tell us that sensory brain regions are malleable long into adulthood. Nearly everyone improves with practice, but some people don’t, and others reach near-perfect performance with little practice. Furthermore, performance at baseline may differentiate what people learn in a task (e.g. stimulus-specific vs. non-specific information). This project will examine individual differences in perceptual learning, with attention to the stimulus- and task components of learning, and predictors of the time-course and overall amount of learning in perceptual tasks. The goal is to understand how people vary in the information they select during perception, and how practice alters that selection. Strong analytical and programming skills desired.

Bullying behaviour and minoritised populations in school and youth work settings ( Dr Steve Minton )

The first major studies into bullying behaviour at school began half a century ago, and since that time a considerable body of knowledge regarding its frequency and typology. Although some empirical research to this effect has appeared over the past 15 years or so, comparatively rather less is known about the specific experiences of young people who belong to minoritised groups; and still less is known about bullying behaviour in youth work settings. Given these gaps in the research knowledge, this project will involve the collation of data on bullying behaviour in both schools and youthwork settings, with specific attention being paid to experiences of young people who belong to minoritised groups (e.g. LGBTQ+, SEN, ethnicity, gender identity and expression), in two locations – an area that we have referred to as ‘southwestern England’ (comprising the counties of Cornwall and Devon), and an area that we have referred to as ‘southeastern Norway’ (comprising the counties of Vestfold og Telemark and Viken). This particular PhD opportunity will concern itself with ‘southwestern England’), with a PhD student operating in parallel in ‘southeastern Norway’. The successful candidate will be expected to (i) recruit and maintain a geographically representative network of secondary schools and youth work organisations for participation in the project; (ii) to engage in the revision, and to implement, a specifically-designed digital survey within the secondary schools and youth work organisation; (iii) to liaise throughout with the parallel research team in Norway; and, (iv) to analyse the outcomes of the survey in order to prepare a PhD write-up, and other disseminations.

Social relationships in the infant’s mind ( Dr Denis Tatone )

To navigate the intricacies of our social arena, we must learn how to appropriately monitor and identify the relationships around us. To solve this task, beginning in infancy, humans leverage a grammar of social relations encompassing concepts such as dominance, friendship, and family. A recent surge of developmental research shows that young children readily recognize these relational concepts and the coordination rules they are associated with (e.g., deference, reciprocity, support, etc). Despite the rich relational intuitions that these studies revealed, several outstanding questions remain, especially concerning how and when social novices infer relationships. For instance, do infants appreciate that certain actions are more strongly indicative of a stable bond than others? Do they interpret the acts by which people establish relationships as mere cues or rather as signals (“relational bids”), the success of which chiefly depend on the addressee’s acknowledgment? Do they understand that the value of a relational partner can be communicated about to third parties (as in gossip)? These are but some of the questions this project aims to explore. The exact shape and scope of the PhD project depends on the student’s interest and is open to other topics of sociomoral relevance (from partner choice to trait attribution through the representation of social groups). The project will require running experiments in the Babylab to collect behavioral and ocular measures of interest, such as manual choice, looking times, etc. Candidates with an interest to learn how to produce animated stimuli are particularly welcome.

The development of cooperation in collective action problems ( Dr Patricia Kanngiesser )

Collective action problems are at the heart of many of the most challenging problems of our time be it the current pandemic, climate change, or scarce resources. Collective action problems arise when individual interests are in conflict with group interests and although cooperation would be beneficial for everyone, it can break down due to free-riders trying to maximize their own benefits. Developmental studies can help to shed light on factors that influence cooperation such as social norms and values that are acquired during childhood. These insights could also be leveraged to develop educational tools (e.g. games and simulations) to foster better understanding of collective action problems. Methods would primarily include behavioural experiments with children and adolescents in the lab/schools/online and there may be opportunities to conduct cross-cultural work. The exact shape and scope of the PhD project would depend on students’ interests. Candidates with an interest to develop online experiments/games are particularly welcome.

The development of political attitudes in children ( Professor Jeremy Goslin )

Political attitudes are central to our moral beliefs about the world, but when and where do we acquire these attitudes? It has long been suggested that children largely inherit the political beliefs of their parents, and yet the development of the political attitudes of young children, and how these attitudes subsequently shape our early moral outlook remains a mystery. This project will draw upon techniques used in experimental psychology and behavioural economics to make an experimental investigation that explores the relationship between the political beliefs of parents and the implicit attitudes of their children to economic decision making, inequality, and sharing. A systematic examination of children over the course of development (from 3–14) will allow an understanding of how children develop politically, and how this affects their behaviour and moral interpretations of society.

Attachment in people with intellectual disabilities ( Dr Deanna Gallichan )

There has been increasing focus on the influence of attachment on clinical problems affecting adults with intellectual disabilities (ID), but the field has been hampered by a lack of reliable and valid measures with which to advance our understanding of the relationship between internal working models and clinical presentations. The Adult Attachment Projective Picture System (or AAP; George and West, 2012) has offered a potential solution to this impasse. Pilot work with has demonstrated good inter-rater reliability for the AAP with adults with ID (Gallichan & George, 2014, 2016, 2018), but the small samples used so far have limited power, and validity is much more difficult to address. Moreover, data thus far has demonstrated a consistent pattern of high rates of unresolved classifications in this group, but the underlying reasons for this are unclear. This PhD would aim to address this by gathering a larger sample of adults with ID in order to more robustly evidence the psychometric properties of the AAP in this group, and develop a deeper theoretical understanding of the influence of ID on the development of internal working models of attachment.

Can people with low self-esteem learn to love themselves? (Katharine Rimes and Dr Sophie Homer )

Low self-esteem is a risk factor for various psychological and physical health problems, as well as difficulties in education/work outcomes and social relationships. Low self-esteem is typically conceptualised and measured in cognitive terms, in that it involves negative beliefs about and attitudes towards the self. Accordingly, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) interventions (e.g. Fennell, 1997; Gilbert, 2010), aim to help cultivate more positive and compassionate self-attitudes. However, cognitive approaches tend to overlook the affective dimension of self-esteem, particularly the development of self-love as an emotional experience. This contrasts to the popular notion of 'self-love' being integral to self-esteem, mental-wellbeing, and positive social relationships. There has been little research into how love towards the self might be cultivated, particularly in people with low self-esteem. Anecdotal reports suggest that accessing a universal sense of lovingness – for example, through loving-kindness meditation or spiritual practice – may improve self-acceptance and self-esteem. However, there has been little research interrogating the extent to which these practices are successful in cultivating self-love, and the mechanisms through which changes take place. This project will begin with a qualitative interview study with participants who have tried to access a sense of universal love. The findings of this study will be considered alongside existing theory and evidence, potentially gathered through a scoping or systematic literature review, to help inform the development of an intervention for people with low self-esteem to practice directing unconditional, universal love towards themselves. The student would investigate the intervention's acceptability, feasibility, and preliminary effects on self-esteem, self-love, mental wellbeing, and interpersonal relationships, using a mixed-methods approach.

Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease ( Dr Deanna Gallichan and Dr Alastair Smith )

People with Down syndrome are at elevated risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease beyond the age of 40 years. Clinical guidelines recommend baseline and regular screening assessments to detect early changes, but this is neither mandated nor carried out consistently across services. PhD projects in this area will explore routes to facilitate the early detection of dementia risk, including the leverage of state-of-the-art virtual reality tasks. This might include development of a model that connects local clinical services with University scientists to develop empirically validated baseline and regular screening. This will serve to identify the most effective methods of tracking change over time and provide a fundamental link to current scientific advances. Evidence suggests that environmental search and foraging tasks offer sensitive and ecologically valid contexts for assessing cognitive control, with adults at risk of dementia appearing more likely to adopt inefficient search strategies. PhD projects might adapt our existing tasks to make them suitable for adults with Down syndrome, or develop new ones to further explore the relationship between behavioural data and traditional clinical evaluation. Studies might also look to developing methods and protocols for conducting neuroimaging paradigms in these groups. PhDs in this topic will, therefore, represent a novel integration of clinical, behavioural, and neuroscientific traditions to produce transformative evidence-based advances in clinical practice.

Functional imagery training ( Professor Jackie Andrade )

Functional imagery training (FIT) is a behaviour change intervention that uses personalised mental imagery to strengthen motivation for healthy behaviours. It has been evaluated for physical health (e.g., weight loss, Solbrig et al, 2019) and mental health (e.g., resilience, Rhodes et al., 2020). Although we have evidence that FIT improves outcomes, we do not know if it does so in the ways predicted by the underlying theory. This PhD will test the cognitive and emotional mechanisms of FIT to determine the role of imagery processes versus generic therapeutic processes in its efficacy. This step is important because it will allow us to refine FIT, incorporating the most effective elements into a brief and effective intervention. The proposed research can focus on any health area, within reason, but must include studies to understand how FIT works.

Game Changer: A strength-based approached to improve the well-being of autistic people through hobbyist gaming ( Dr Gray Atherton and Dr Liam Cross )

We welcome proposals for novel research which will improve the lives of autistic people by building skills and relationships through modern board games. We are interested in understanding how hobbyist board games, including RPGs and traditional games may help people of all ages forge social connections and build on existing strengths. Topics for investigation might include executive functioning, disability narratives, independence, parent/sibling relationships and school-based interventions. Work focussed on special populations within the autism spectrum would be of particular interest. These are just examples and we are open to other suggestions. While projects may include aspects of gamification, the focus would be on modern table top board gaming. We are happy to support research using psychometric, biometrics or qualitative methods, or a combination of the these. We have existing links with relevant existing industry partnerships and would be particularly interested in working with individuals who have ideas for how to work collaboratively within industry partnerships.

Imagery Training for Individuals with Aphantasia and Low Imagery Abilities ( Dr Jon Rhodes )

This PhD studentship offers a unique opportunity to explore the enhancement of imagery ability in individuals with aphantasia and low imagery ability, traits traditionally considered to be innate and unchangeable. Recent research has demonstrated that these abilities can be significantly improved, enabling individuals to better understand and engage their multisensory capabilities, which in turn enhances their planning and task execution skills. The aim of this studentship is to further investigate this area by assessing and training imagery ability across various samples. The primary objectives of the project include investigating the baseline imagery abilities in individuals with aphantasia and low imagery ability, developing and implementing training protocols to enhance these abilities, and evaluating the effectiveness of these protocols across different populations. Additionally, the project seeks to explore the cognitive and practical benefits of improved imagery ability, such as enhanced planning and problem-solving skills.

Towards Menstrual Equity: A Biopsychosocial Approach ( Dr Jaysan Charlesford )

About one third of the global population presently menstruates, and periods are part of the healthy experience of around half of all people. Despite the normality of menstruation, ignorance is rife, period stigma persists in society, and many perceive that menstruation occurs at a biopsychosocial ‘cost’ to women and other people who menstruate. I am particularly interested in supervising PhD programmes that explore issues of menstrual education, menstrual equity in higher education, and/or period stigma, but am open to negotiating research into adjacent topics. Whereas the precise scope, focus, and methodology of the PhD programme are open to negotiation, I would envisage the employment of any of the following: Questionnaire-based data collection, with analyses via mediation, moderation, and conditional process analyses; interviews and focus-groups, with analyses via thematic analysis and/or interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA); experimentation to test the longitudinal effects of education-based interventions. Please note that this project will be supervised by a mixed-sex team of academics.

Psychological factors in women's health ( Dr Alison Bacon and Dr Alyson Norman )

We welcome proposals for novel research which will increase understanding of women’s health and which can potentially help to improve health outcomes longer term. Topics for investigation might include trauma, childhood experiences, personality, coping, stress, resilience, attachment, or relationships with health professionals. Work focussed on specific health conditions is also of interest. These are just examples and we are open to other suggestions. While projects may include aspects of mental health, the primary focus would be on physical health. We are happy to support research using psychometric or qualitative methods, or a combination of the two.

Spirit and science: Projects in clinical and transpersonal psychology ( Dr Sophie Homer and Dr Edith Steffen )

We welcome proposals for novel research into the nature of self and consciousness, the concept of spiritual health and wellbeing, and the overlap between transpersonal and clinical psychology. Transpersonal psychology is about going beyond the individual, beyond ego, beyond everyday thinking, and beyond ‘normal’ states of consciousness. It is considered a form of critical psychology in that it does not rely solely upon the ideas about science, epistemology, ontology, and axiology that pervade in this culture at this point in time. It considers materialism as a working hypothesis rather than an unquestionable truth, and it appreciates that knowledge gained outside of normal waking consciousness can be meaningful and valid. Projects could explore the relationship between transpersonal phenomena, which can be experienced as healing and/or distressing, and physical and mental health and wellbeing. Possible topics could include spiritual emergence and spiritual emergency, exceptional human experiences (e.g. contact with deceased loved-ones, ‘awakening’, near-death or out-of-body experiences, mystical experiences, kundalini, altered states of consciousness, transpersonal connectedness, clairsentience, etc.), and processes of self or spiritual transformation (e.g. through practices such as meditation). Methods can include experimental, quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods approaches. We can work together to help shape your idea.

Understanding risk and expertise in multidisciplinary clinical teams ( Dr Ben Whalley and Dr Pete Keohane )

Experts make accurate predictions and successful interventions in complex environments. Research on expert judgement strongly suggests that, to develop expertise, the environment in which professionals operate must have ‘high validity’: experts require information that is genuinely predictive of important outcomes, and accurate feedback to evaluate decisions and actions. On both counts clinical psychologists are at a disadvantage: because psychological distress is complex and multiply caused clinicians face real challenges in extracting and acting-on regularities in a ‘noisy’ system. Numerous studies show that clinical experts struggle to make accurate predictions and decisions in important domains (e.g. suicide risk, risk of harms in psychosis). This is sometimes taken as evidence that clinical psychologists lack true expertise, but we start from the position that the glass is half-full. Clinical decisions are complex, and humans make mistakes of memory and reasoning. But clinical psychologists probably do gain expertise through practice: meta-analyses show psychotherapy is effective, and psychological perspective and techniques (biopsychosocial model, formulation) are viewed as useful by other professionals. However, we are interested to understand why effective techniques to improve expert decision making are not widely adopted in clinical psychology and what can be done about it. The project will recruit professionals in MDTs and service users in acute adult and forensic settings, crisis services, and related outpatient adult services. We will (likely) adopt a mixed-methods approach, combining qualitative analysis of talk in MDTs with structured interviews and surveys. Bayesian elicitation methods and related quantitative methods will be used to characterise the expectations – and agreement in expectations – among MDT members, and explore how this relates to the decision making process.

Understanding the impact of weight cycling on the health and wellbeing of people living with obesity ( Professor Mark Tarrant and Professor Jonathan Pinkney )

In the UK alone, around 15 million people now live with obesity, and at least 5 million of these live with severe obesity (Body Mass Index ³35kg/m²). Behavioural weight management programmes, including in community settings, can be effective in promoting weight loss but weight regain frequently follows, with associated mental health consequences. “Weight cycling” – the repeated loss and regain of weight – is associated with even greater mental health difficulties, potentially because of the internalisation of weight stigma. This finding points to the importance of public health interventions for people with obesity that help sustain mental health alongside ongoing promotion of health-supporting ways of living. This multimethod, cross-disciplinary PhD will explore the complex relationships between mental health and health behaviours in those experiencing weight cycling. A particular focus for the research will be on how community assets (services and social) and social deprivation influence peoples’ experiences. By understanding the perspectives of those at-risk but who do not experience weight cycling, the research will highlight protective factors that may inform future intervention. Particular attention will be on the experiences of people of differing weight, recognising that people with severe obesity are under-represented in research but report poorest mental health attributable to this chronic disease.

Understanding the role of imagination in tackling environmental issues and/or promoting human health and wellbeing ( Dr Kayleigh Wyles , Dr Julie Ji and Professor Jackie Andrade )

The main premise of this PhD is to pull together two areas of Psychology to understand and promote a healthy world to live in: 1) Environmental Psychology, extending theories and empirical evidence on our relationships with the physical environment around us, and 2) Mental simulation, the cognitive capacity to simulate novel or hypothetical experiences via the imagination. This PhD aims to explore how imagination-based mental simulation may augment our engagements with the physical world. This could go in one of two directions: how it impacts the environment’s health or how it impacts our own health and wellbeing. First, to investigate the role of imagination in tackling environmental issues, this PhD could examine to what extent imagination-based mental simulation can be used to motivate pro-environmental behaviours. For example, by manipulating the levels of mental simulation (e.g. asking people to imagine a scenario vs. providing external stimuli to support and guide that imagination, such as through Virtual Reality, VR), this PhD could examine whether these different types of interactions can strengthen a person’s connectedness and/or commitment to protecting the natural world through reduce the psychological distance between the spectator (the individual) and the victim (wildlife and/or natural environments). The second alternative direction would be to investigate the role of imagination in promoting human health and wellbeing. Vast amount of research has shown that spending time in nature or even watching a natural scene on a computer can improve a person’s mood and overall wellbeing. Can the imagination augment the wellbeing benefits of nature exposure, such as through extending the experience via mental simulation, or a combination of mental simulation and actual/virtual exposure?

Brain Imaging and Biomechanics: neural control of real-world movement performance ( Professor Stephen Hall )

The neuroanatomical and neurophysiological process that control the movement of individual muscles and limbs is reasonably well understood. However, the mechanisms by which the brain coordinates the complex coordination of biomechanics, to enable whole-body movement through the real-world, is an exciting area of future research. This research programme will use the unique capabilities of the Brain Research & Imaging Centre at the University of Plymouth (BRIC) . The project aims to: (1) use functional MRI (fMRI) to identify the brain networks involved in the control of movement; (2) combine mobile-electroencephalography (EEG) , complex biomechanical measurements (GRAIL) and virtual reality (VR) to determine the neural signatures associated with real world movement and: (3) use brain stimulation methods to determine the causal role of brain structures and signals in the generation of effective movement. We will apply a range of analysis methods, from signal processing to machine learning, to optimise our interaction with neurophysiological features and to develop methods of neural interaction that improve performance in health and neurological disorders.

Breaking through the brain barrier: transcranial ultrasound stimulation and the visual system ( Dr Giorgio Ganis and Professor Elsa Fouragnan )

Transcranial ultrasound stimulation (TUS) is an exciting and innovative non-invasive technique that has the potential to revolutionize the field of brain research. This cutting-edge method allows for unparalleled spatial precision in modulating brain activity, opening up new avenues for exploring the intricacies of neural function. While still in its early stages, TUS has already shown promising results in both animal and human studies. This project aims to take advantage of the well-established organization of the human visual system to investigate the behavioural and neural effects of TUS. By combining psychophysics, TUS, electroencephalography (EEG), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI/fMRI), we will explore the specific effects of TUS on different levels of the visual hierarchy in humans. This will include examining low-level vision in retinotopically organized early visual areas, motion processing in motion-sensitive areas, and object processing in shape-sensitive visual areas. With this project, we hope to shed light on the potential of TUS as a powerful tool for modulating brain activity and exploring the intricacies of neural function. By investigating its effects on different levels of the visual hierarchy, we aim to better understand the mechanisms underlying this exciting new technique and its potential applications in a wide range of fields. Apply for this project, if you would like to join us on this journey of discovery as we explore the fascinating world of TUS and the human brain.

Do cholinergic medications improve cognitive performance in patients with dementia (Alzheimer’s, Lewy Body Dementias) and what drives individual differences in the response to these medications? ( Dr Sean Fallon )

Cognitive deficits in dementias (such as Alzheimer’s and the Lewy Body Dementias) are generally thought to result from declines in the levels of acetylcholine in the brain. On this basis, drugs that boost cholinergic stimulation in the brain, such as rivastigmine, are frequently prescribed in these conditions. However, while some patients can experience benefits from these medications, other patients may experience no benefit or may have more cognitive impairments. This programme of research seeks to understand why this is the case. It will seek to understand the role of individual differences (baseline cognitive performance) in shaping the response to these medications.

Functional parcellation and characterization of human auditory cortex using multimodal imaging ( Dr Julien Besle )

The organization of the human into functionally distinct cortical areas that undertake different cognitive operations is not well understood. Previous work using non-invasive neuroimaging tools, such as functional or structural MRI, to identify human auditory cortical areas in individual participants, has shown that the functional organization of the human auditory cortex differs from that of other non-human primates (Besle et al., 2019), but the exact location and function of different auditory cortical areas remains unclear. PhD project topics will pursue this line of inquiry along one or several of the following axes (or contact me if you have your own suggestion for research questions on perception in the auditory or other sensory modalities): (1) Improving non-invasive methods for parcellating functionally-distinct auditory cortical areas in individual participants: functional markers used previously to differentiate between auditory cortical areas (frequency preference, frequency selectivity and intracortical myelin content) have proved insufficient for a complete mapping of human auditory cortex. This project will explore the use of alternative non-invasive measurements, including fMRI mapping of other topographically-organized acoustic features and connectivity-based parcellation from diffusion-weighted or resting-stage functional MRI data. (2) Functional role of identified auditory cortical areas in auditory perception: the ability to identify the location of auditory areas in individual human participants opens new avenues for exploring the role of these areas in auditory perception. Performance in psychoacoustics tasks will be correlated to the functional features of different auditory cortical areas to study the contribution of each area to specific cognitive operations involved in auditory perception.

Projects will combine data acquisition using one or several neuroimaging modalities, psychophysical measurements, state-of the art analysis techniques and/or computational modelling approaches. Experience with (or a strong interest to learn) computer programming is highly desirable. Successful candidates will have access to the school lab and to the brand new state-of-the-art human neuroimaging facility (BRIC). Applicants are advised to make contact to discuss the specific direction of the project before applying.

How does the frontal cortex support cognitive flexibility and is this divergent in people with ADHD? ( Dr Sean Fallon )

Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a safe and non-invasive way of measuring the concentration of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin in superficial areas of the brain. This project will involve using fNIRS to measure fluctuations the response to the frontal cortex, either at rest or during attentionally demanding tasks, and seeing how these vary in those with or without ADHD. If successful, this task could provide researchers with a biomarker for ADHD which can be used to assess pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment response.

Investigating the neuropsychological markers of highly visual social media & body image concerns ( Professor Helen Lloyd and Dr Matt Roser )

In 2017, the Royal Society for Public Health (RSPH), highlighted the need for awareness and investigation on the impact of the internet – in particular social media – on shaping ideas of self-perception and body image. Body image is described as a person’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings about their body and body image dissatisfaction (concerns) is defined as a person’s negative thoughts and feelings about their body’ (Grogan, 2007). The increasing popularity of social media, particularly in young adults, has led to concerns regarding the addictive and potentially harmful nature of various platforms. Social Media Use (SMU) has been associated with mental health and wellbeing problems such as Anxiety, Depression and Self-Esteem issues (Kelly et al., 2018). In particular, increased usage of highly visual and image based social media (HVSM) (Marengo et al., 2018), presents a potentially greater risk of body image concerns in both males and females. Kim and Chock (2015), found that exposure (i.e. time spent on social media) was unrelated to body image concerns, but instead was related to ‘social grooming’ behaviours (i.e. viewing, commenting on peer’s profiles). They also reported that appearance comparisons significantly mediated the relationship between social grooming and the drive for thinness in women. This suggests that ‘active’ use of HVSM (e.g. social grooming) coupled with the propensity to compare oneself to ‘idealised types’ has the potential to explain why some individuals experience body dissatisfaction and aspire to idealised thinness. Indeed, an integrated model of internet use proposed by Rodgers (Rodgers, 2016), implicates online cultures of body thin ideals and the psychological processes of social comparison as key interacting mechanisms driving body shame and disordered eating. Work has already begun to test if it is feasible to identify relationships between exposure and interaction with HVSM (as material that exploit psychological mechanisms) and neuropsychological markers of HVSM processing in individuals scoring high and low on measures of body image satisfaction. This PhD would extend and develop this work, building on the proof of concept foundation work that has already been initiated. This PhD offers the opportunity for a suitable candidate to be part of a cutting edge and exciting project with opportunities to develop advanced statistical skills, neuropsychological and fMRI techniques.

Motivation under pressure in cooperative and competitive contexts ( Dr Andrea Pisauro )

Deadlines are a powerful driver of behaviour. Exerting pressure they boost our motivation to exert effort when we want to reach a goal. Under the pressure of a deadline, we become “effort seeking”, willing to put in effort (i.e. study/work/exercise) that we would happily postpone or avoid. However, the effect of deadlines might also be context-dependant. Competitive and cooperative social contexts have both been reported to affect motivation, with some people being more of a team-player and others being more competitive. The aim of this project is to study and model the role of the social context on the motivation to exert effort under pressure. The project will involve neuroimaging and developing computational models of decision making. Therefore, experience, interest or strong willingness to learn computer programming (e.g. MATLAB, Python) is essential. The candidate will have access to to the state-of-the-art human neuroimaging facility (Brain Research & Imaging Centre) of the University.

Ongoing thoughts, human cognition, and brain architecture ( Dr Nerissa Ho )

Human existence depends on the capacity to experience things happening in our lives, as denoted in René Descartes’ famous quote, “I think, therefore I am”. From neuroscientists’ perspective, experiences exist only if they can be represented in the brain, and these representations are commonly referred to as ‘trains of thought’. Past studies of ongoing experiences mostly focused on mind-wandering by examining thoughts that are unrelated to the performing task. However, mind-wandering is simply the nature of the human brain. In fact, our thoughts continuously drift to and from the external and internal world, and between diverse events. And mind-wandering is not just about task-unrelated thoughts, instead, it encompasses a much wider variety of experiences, including thoughts that are stimulus-independent, unintentional, meandering, and unguided. Common to this family of thoughts is that they all rely on the capacity to process information decoupled from ties of external stimulation, an important aspect of human experience known as introspection. Importantly, there is increasing evidence showing that mind-wandering is associated with both beneficial processes, such as goal-directed thinking, planning, creativity, and intelligence, as well as processes linked with negative outcomes such as impaired task performance, disruptions to learning and affective dysfunction. Together, they suggest the prevailing task-negativity account of mind-wandering is simply inadequate for explaining the complexity and richness of the experiences and mechanisms underpinning mind-wandering. Our project aims to extend our knowledge of ongoing thoughts to better understand how these thoughts reflect human cognition, based on the strategy of triangulation to examine self-report data with both behavioural and neuroimaging evidence. Specifically, we will examine how patterns of ongoing thought, their content, form, intentionality, emotionality, task-relatedness, relationship with external stimuli and so on, are related to factors such as brain architecture and activation patterns, environmental and task contexts, as well as cognitive performance indicators and other personal characteristics. Ultimately, we would hope to apply our understanding of the neurocognitive underpinnings of ongoing thought patterns, together with their impacts on cognitive and emotional experiences, in order to translate into applications in the clinical and ageing domains.

Passing the neuroscience of tool use to robots ( Professor Jeremy Goslin )

In embodied models of cognition our representations of objects are formed around the motor programs used to manipulate them. This means that not only do we automatically prepare relevant actions when viewing objects, but also that our actions modulate our perception of our environment and those interacting within it. Robots with a similar embodied architecture should also benefit from a more seamless sensory-motor integration. In this project electrophysiological brain imaging techniques will be used in virtual reality environments to examine how object-based affordances help us to learn and manipulate tools. This new understanding will then be used to directly inform interactive models of human-robot object manipulation and collaboration.

Spatially-accurate ultrasound stimulation of topographically-organized sensory cortex ( Dr Julien Besle , Dr Giorgio Ganis , and Professor Elsa Fouragnan )

Brain stimulation techniques allows the study of the causal role of different brain regions in perception and behaviour. Transcranial focused ultrasound stimulation (tFUS) is a novel non-invasive brain stimulation method that holds much promise both in terms of clinical and basic applications. Compared to other currently available stimulation methods (e.g. TMS), tFUS is more spatially accurate and allows the stimulation of deeper brain structures. The effect of tFUS on neuronal activity and perception/cognition is not very well characterized, however. This project will systematically characterize the behavioural consequences of stimulating visual and auditory primary cortices, which are both located deep inside cortical fissures and have a known fine-grained spatial organization, allowing a test of the spatial accuracy of tFUS. The topographical organization of visual and auditory cortex will first be measured using functional MRI in individual participants, and the measured maps will be used to accurately stimulate restricted parts of visual or auditory cortex corresponding to different locations in visual space (different locations in the outside world) or in auditory space (different sound frequencies). Depending on the intensity of the tFUS, stimulation should result in either a decrease in sensory discrimination performance or the induction of phantom sensations at the stimulated location in sensory space, but not at other locations. Projects will combine neuroimaging data acquisition (structural and functional MRI), neuro-navigated brain stimulation (tFUS), psychophysical measurements and state-of the art analysis techniques. Experience with (or a strong interest to learn) computer programming is highly desirable. Successful candidates will have access to the school lab and to the brand new state-of-the-art human neuroimaging facility (BRIC). Applicants are advised to make contact to discuss the specific direction of the project before applying.

The ageing brain – structural degeneration and functional consequences ( Dr Matt Roser )

We have previously demonstrated, in studies of callosotomy patients (Roser et al., 2011) and using functional MRI (fMRI) (Fugelsang, Roser et al., 2005) that the two cerebral hemispheres make different contributions to the perception of causality in object interactions and to the drawing of inferences about causality. Furthermore, we have shown (Linnet & Roser, 2012) that ageing (>65 years) has deleterious effects upon behavioural processes that depend on interhemispheric brain connectivity and (Roser et al., 2012) that indices of structural connectivity are related to behavioural performance in young adults. This project proposes that age-related decline in fundamental processes of perception, learning, and reasoning will be partly explicable by the degeneration of white-matter pathways in the brain, particularly between the two cerebral hemispheres and between anterior-posterior regions, and that this will be reflected in patterns of functional-network activity across the brain. We predict that deficits (relative to young adults) in behavioural performance will be most marked in those processes that depend on widely-distributed networks of activity and which are vulnerable to disruption by age-related degeneration of microstructural connectivity. We will use our established paradigms for investigating causal perception, causal and real-world reasoning, observational learning and hypothesis generation, with young adults, healthy-aged participants, and patients with early-stage dementia while recording brain activity using fMRI and brain microstructural connectivity using diffusion MRI. The same cohort will undertake several experimental tasks, over two one-hour long scanning sessions, so as to facilitate the cross-paradigm meta-analysis of the effect of age-related structural degeneration upon distributed brain processes. Further behavioural testing and characterization of dementia status will be conducted outside the scanner. Analyses of distributed brain function (as in Karuza…Roser, et al., 2017) will be informed by MRI indices of microstructural connectivity. The project will make use of brand-new facilities in Plymouth’s flagship Brain Research and Imaging Centre to examine neural connectivity (including diffusion imaging and white-matter tractography) in relation to navigational performance. Some experience with computer programming (e.g. matlab, R, Python) and MRI analysis is essential for this project.

The pharmacology of self-doubt and its effect on cognitive control ( Dr Sean Fallon )

One of the features of many psychiatric and neurological disorders is corrosive self-doubt. For example, even when they are performing tasks at normal (or even above normal) levels, patients with depression can often feel like they performed terribly. This suggests that there is a dissociation between one’s cognitive ability and one’s perception of performance. Such a discrepancy may arise because there is a dissociation in the neurocognitive systems that support actual performance (cognitive control) and confidence. This project will assess the effect of a range of pharmacological compounds on cognitive control and self-doubt in healthy and neuropsychiatric populations (e.g. People with Parkinson’s disease, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder).

The science of deception: A cognitive neuroscience approach to understanding how people hide information ( Dr Giorgio Ganis )

Are you interested in the neuroscience behind deception and how the brain conceals information? This PhD project aims to address some of the fundamental questions surrounding this intriguing topic. This project utilizes state-of-the-art cognitive neuroscience methods such as EEG, brain stimulation, and fMRI to investigate the cognitive and neural processes associated with concealing information. Recent electrophysiological findings have identified several neural signatures that are associated with concealed information, such as the frontal N2, multiple P3s, and late positivities. However, two broad questions remain unanswered: (i) What cognitive and neural processes do these signatures reflect? Do they reflect recognition or inhibitory processes? (ii) Are these neural signatures causally related to information concealment or just epiphenomena useful for forensic purposes? In this project, we will use cutting-edge cognitive neuroscience techniques and theories to investigate the timecourse and causality of these neural processes. By combining EEG, brain stimulation, and fMRI, we aim to uncover the underlying mechanisms of concealed information and provide a more comprehensive understanding of the neural processes involved in deception. Our research will have significant implications for forensic investigations and could potentially contribute to the development of new techniques for detecting deception. Apply for this project if you’d like to join us in this exciting and innovative research project and make significant contributions to the field of cognitive neuroscience.

Using brain imaging and brain stimulation to see what’s in your mind ( Dr Giorgio Ganis )

Visual mental imagery is our ability to conjure visual scenarios in our mind in the absence of actual visual stimuli in the environment. This ability plays a critical role in many cognitive skills and mental disorders and is pervasive in our mental life. Current theories propose that visual mental imagery is carried out in our brain by means of top-down processes that reactivate neural representations similar to those engaged during visual perception at multiple levels in the visual hierarchy. However, the details of such processes are unclear. For example, some recent EEG evidence using multivariate analyses has suggested that these top-down processes may be conveyed by oscillations in the alpha range, whereas other EEG evidence has implicated oscillations in the gamma and theta ranges. This project aims to use a set of rigorous visual mental imagery tasks to shed light on the details of these top-down processes using multivariate analyses on a combination of behavioural, EEG, brain stimulation, and fMRI measures.

Virtual Reality as an intervention for disorders of pain and movement ( Dr Alastair Smith )

Recent evidence suggests that immersive virtual reality (VR) can play a positive role in the understanding and treatment of health disorders. For example, calming immersive environments can be used to help individuals manage pain, and classic neuropsychological tests of cognitive function are beginning to be reconfigured in the virtual domain. Not only might these developments be more rewarding and engaging for patients, but they also provide opportunity for remote treatment and assessment. This project, in collaboration with colleagues in the NHS, will focus on the development of VR assessments and interventions for disorders of pain and movement, such as fibromyalgia, Myalgic encephalomyelitis, and complex regional pain syndrome. Focus will be on the production and testing of automated treatments that would usually require a clinician, and also on the gamification of some interventions to support acceptance and commitment to self-led support plans, such as exercise regimes. Patient-based work will be supported by empirical studies in the Brain Research & Imagine Centre to assess the functional underpinnings of effective change.